The UN Refugee Convention of 1951 establishes that those who flee their country owing to a "well-founded fear of being persecuted for reasons of race, religion, nationality, membership of a particular social group or political opinion" are entitled to refuge and may not be sent back to face danger.
The convention arose haphazardly. It originally applied only to post-war Europe, designed to spare fugitives from the Soviet Union from being sent back to face Stalin's wrath. It declared that anyone forced to flee by a "well-founded fear" of persecution must have sanctuary, and established the principle of "non-refoulement"---that refugees must not be returned to face peril. It was extended to the whole world by a protocol in 1967. Most countries have signed both documents, but dwindling numbers honour them.
Europe and North America have long been fairly generous. The principles of the convention are incorporated into European Union law and enforced by national courts. When Italy began sending asylum-seekers to Albania while their claims were processed, judges ruled the scheme illegal.
In contrast, China, though a signatory, treats its principles as optional. It admitted only 296 refugees in 2023, fewer than tiny Liechtenstein. It routinely sends fugitives from North Korea home to face prison camp or execution.
Several non-signatories, such as Jordan, Lebanon and Pakistan, host large numbers of refugees without being legally obliged to.
The system was designed for post-war Europe and struggles to cope with a world of proliferating conflict, cheap travel and huge wage disparities. Roughly 900m people would like to migrate permanently. Since it is almost impossible for a citizen of a poor country to move legally to a rich one, many have discovered that asylum offers a back door: instead of crossing a border stealthily, they walk up to a border guard and request asylum, knowing the claim will take years to adjudicate. Most asylum claims in the European Union are now rejected outright.
The UN refugee agency spends less than $1 a day on each refugee in Chad. When Germany opened its doors to Syrians in 2015-16, it inspired 1m refugees who had already found safety in Turkey to move to Europe in pursuit of higher wages. Fugitives from Syria's war who made it to next-door Turkey were a broad cross-section of Syrians; those who reached Europe were 15 times more likely to have college degrees.
Paul Collier and Alexander Betts, two Oxford professors, argued in "Refuge" (published after the 2015-16 refugee crisis) that "most countries fail to comply" with the convention. In May 2025, the leaders of nine EU countries, including Italy and Poland, signed a letter complaining that international conventions on migration no longer "match the challenges that we face today".
Words are the litmus paper of the minds. If you find yourself in the power of someone who will use the word "commence" in cold blood, go somewhere else very quickly. But if they say "Enter", don't stop to pack.